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A  PRIMER  OF  ESSENTIALS 


IN 


GRAMMAR  AND  RHETORIC 


FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


MARIETTA   KNIGHT 

ENGLISH   DEPARTMENT,    SOUTH   HIGH   SCHOOL 
WORCESTER,   MASS. 


NEW  YORK-:- CINCINNATI- :.CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 


PRIM.  OF  ESSEN.  IN  GRAM.  AND  RHET. 
TT 


PREFACE 

THIS  primer  is  the  outcome  of  the  need  felt 
by  a  group  of  teachers  of  English  for  something 
in  the  hands  of  their  pupils  that  would  simply 
and  concisely,  in  the  form  of  definitions,  rules, 
and  principles,  summarize  the  class-room  teach- 
ing in  the  essentials  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 
in  secondary  schools.  It  is  designed  as  a  guide 
in  review  study  of  the  ordinary  text-books  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  or  as  an  aid  to  teachers 
who  dispense  with  ordinary  text-books;  in  either 
case  it  is  assumed  that  abundant  illustrative  and 
drill  work  has  been  provided  by  the  teacher  in 
connection  with  each  subject  treated. 


266963 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

RULES,  DEFINITIONS,  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAM- 
MAR          5 

Nouns,  6.  Interjections,  30. 

Pronouns,  1 1.  Sentences,  31. 

Verbs,  14.  Clauses,  32. 

Adjectives,  25.  Phrases,  33. 

Adverbs,  28.  Capitals,  33. 

Prepositions,  28.  Punctuation,  33t 
Conjunctions,  29. 

RULES,  DEFINITIONS,  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  RHETORIC  .        .      36 

Forms  of  Composition,  36.  Choice      and      Use      of 
Letter  Writing,  38.  Words,  45. 

The  Paragraph,  42.  Figures  of  Speech,  47. 

The  Sentence,  43.  Poetry,  49. 

DON'TS  —  RHETORICAL  AND  GRAMMATICAL  .       .       .       .57 

HELPS  IN  WRITING  A  THEME 59 

INDEX    ,.«»•••••••     6f 


PRIMER   OF   ESSENTIALS 

RULES,  DEFINITIONS,  AND  PRINCIPLES 
OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  forms 
and  the  uses  of  words.  The  rules  of  grammar  con- 
form to  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of 
the  relations  of  words  in  sentences. 

Inflection  is  a  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  to 
indicate  a  change  in  meaning  or  use.  English  is 
a  language  so  slightly  inflected  that  the  relation  of 
words  is  indicated  chiefly  by  position.  All  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  placed  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  words  they  modify. 

An  Idiom  is  an  accepted  peculiarity  in  the  form 
of  a  phrase  or  in  the  use  of  a  word. 

THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

The  Parts  of  Speech  are  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs, 
adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and 
interjections. 

The  part  of  speech  is  determined  by  its  use  in 
the  sentence. 

5 


GRAMMAR 


NOUNS 
A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything. 


NOUNS 


Kinds  i 


Proper 
Common 
Abstract 
Collective 


Gender 


Properties 


Masculine 
Feminine 
Neuter 


First 

Person    •)  Second 
Third 


Number 


Case 


Plural 

Nominative 
Possessive  (Genitive) 
Objective  (Dative  and  Accu- 
sative) 


A  Proper  noun  is  a  name  given  to  an  individual 
of  a  class  to  distinguish  it  from  others  of  the  same 
class.  In  contrast  with  this  sort  of  noun,  all  others 
are  called  Common  nouns. 

An  Abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  con- 
dition, or  relation  of  an  object.  Examples:  heigtft, 
goodness,  nearness. 

A  Collective  noun  is  a  name  applied  to  a  collec- 
tion of  objects.  Examples :  family,  tribe. 


NOUNS  7 

Gender  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
which  distinguishes  objects  in  regard  to  sex. 

The  Masculine  gender  denotes  the  male;  the 
Feminine  denotes  the  female;  and  the  Neuter 
usually  denotes  that  the  object  has  no  animal 
life. 

Person  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
which  denotes  whether  the  person  speaking  is 
meant  (First  person),  the  person  spoken  to  (Second 
person),  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  (Third 
person). 

Number  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
which  denotes  one  (Singular)  or  more  than  one 
(Plural).  (See  p.  10.) 

Case  is  the  use  of  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
sentence. 

A  noun  in  the  Nominative  case  may  be :  — 

1.  Subject  of  a  finite  verb. 

2.  In  apposition  with  another  noun  in  the  nomi- 
native case. 

3.  A  predicate  noun  modifying  the  subject. 

4.  Used  independently  by  direct  address. 

5.  Used  independently  with  a  participle0 

Examples  of  nominative  use  :  — 

1.  The  book  is  here  (subj.). 

2.  The  present,  a  book,  is  here  (appos.). 

3.  The  present  is  a  book  (pred.  noun). 


8  GRAMMAR 

4.  John,  come  here  (indep.  by  direct  address,  —  Voca- 
tive). 

5.  The  book  having  been  presented,  I  went  home  (indep. 
with  a  participle). 

A  noun  in  the  Objective  case  may  be :  — 

1.  Direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

2.  Indirect  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

3.  Object  of  a  preposition. 

4.  In  apposition  with  another  noun  in  the  objec- 
tive- case. 

5.  Predicate  noun  modifying  the  object. 

6.  Used  adverbially  to  show  measure. 

7.  Subject  of  an  infinitive. 

Examples  of  the  objective  use :  — 

1.  You  may  give  the  book  (dir.  obj.  of  verb). 

2.  You  may  give  John  the  book  (indir.  obj.). 

3.  The  work  is  in  the  book  (obj.  of  prep.). 

4.  I  saw  the  present,  a  book  (appos.). 

5.  They  called  the  game  a  draw  (pred.  noun  modifying 
the  object) . 

6.  He  jumped  afoot  (used  adverbially  to  show  measure). 

7.  He  made  the  */<?£•  jump  (subj.  of  inf.). 

The  Possessive  (or  Genitive)  case  of  the  noun 
and  pronoun  usually  indicates  ownership. 

FORM   OF   THE   POSSESSIVE 

The   possessive   singular   of   a  noun   is   nearly 
always  formed  by  adding  's  to  the  noun.     If  the 


NOUNS  9 

plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added  to 
form  the  possessive.  If  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s, 
the  possessive  is  formed  by  adding  's.  Examples  : 
boy's,  boys' ,  metis. 

The  possessive  case  of  compound  nouns  is  formed 
by  adding  the  possessive  sign  to  the  last  word.  Ex- 
amples :  son-in-law' sy  sons-in-law's,  men-servants'. 

A  noun  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  an 
s  or  a  z  sound  sometimes  omits  the  s  of  the  pos- 
sessive sign  and  adds  only  the  apostrophe.  Ex- 
amples :  Dickens'  stories,  for  justice'  sake. 

Proper  nouns  form  their  possessive  case  like 
common  nouns  with  similar  endings. 

USE    OF    THE    POSSESSIVE 

Nouns  that  do  not  denote  living  beings  are 
seldom  used  in  the  possessive  case  unless  they 
are  personified. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  before  a  gerund  should 
be  in  the  possessive  case.  Example :  He  did  not 
like  the  musician's  playing. 

AGREEMENT    OF    NOUNS 

A  Predicate  Noun  is  one  that  modifies  another 
by  the  help  of  a  verb. 

An  appositive  or  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  has 
the  same  case  as  the  noun  that  it  explains. 


10  GRAMMAR 

FORM    OF   THE   PLURAL 

Most  nouns,  common  and  proper,  form  theil 
plural  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular. 

Sometimes  the  last  letter  of  the  singular  form  is 
changed  before  the  plural  ending  s  or  es.  Ex- 
amples :  daisy,  daisies ;  leaf,  leaves. 

Some  nouns  have  an  irregular  plural.  Examples : 
mouse,  mice ;  tooth,  teeth;  man,  men. 

Some  nouns  have  two  plurals.     Examples : 

f  pennies }  , .   ( dies  ] 

penny  \*  \,       die\          \. 

[pence     J  [dice  J 

Some  words  use  their  singular  form  with  a  plural 
meaning.  Examples  :  sheep,  deer,  trout,  salmon. 

Letters,  figures,  signs,  and  words  regarded 
merely  as  things  spoken  or  written  form  their 
plural  by  adding  's.  Examples:  a's,  fs,  +  's, 
me's,  my's. 

Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  only.  Ex- 
amples :  scissors,  tongs,  trousers. 

When  a  title  is  used  with  a  name,  either  the 
title  or  the  name  is  made  plural.  Examples : 
The  Mrs.  Browns,  The  Misses  Brown,  The  Miss 
Browns. 

Compound  nouns  usually  form  their  plural  by 
making  plural  the  principal  word.  Some  exceptions 
make  both  words  plural.  Examples :  knights- 
templars,  lords-justices, 


PRONOUNS 


II 


PRONOUNS 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  place  of  a  noun, 
and  it  has  in  general  the  same  uses  that  nouns 

have. 

Personal 
Relative 
Kinds  \  Interrogative 

Demonstrative 
[  Indefinite 


Masculine 

Gender  -j  Feminine 
Neuter 


PRONOUNS 


Properties  - 


f  First 

Person    J  Second 
[  Third 

Number  j 

/  Plural 


Case 


{Nominative 
Possessive 
Objective 


The  Declension  of  a  pronoun  shows  its  changes 
in  form  according  to  number  and  case. 

The  Personal  pronouns  in  the  nominative  singu- 
lar are  /,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  it. 

The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons 
are  declined  thus  :  — 


12 


GRAMMAR 


NOMINATIVE  : 
POSSESSIVE  : 
OBJECTIVE  : 


NOMINATIVE  : 
POSSESSIVE  : 
OBJECTIVE  : 


FIRST  PERSON 
Singular 
I 

my,  mine 
me 

SECOND  PERSON 
Singular 

you 

your,  yours 

you 


Plural 
we 

our,  ours 
us 


Plural 
you 

your,  yours 
you 


The  old  form  of  the  second  person  is  declined 
thus : — 

Singular  Plural 

NOMINATIVE  :      thou  ye 

POSSESSIVE  :         thy,  thine  you,  yours 

OBJECTIVE  :         thee  you 

The  pronouns  of  the  third  person  are  declined 
thus : — 

THIRD  PERSON 


Singular 


Plural 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Neuter 

All  Genders 

NOMINATIVE:  he 
POSSESSIVE  :     his 
OBJECTIVE  :      him 

she 
her,  hers 
her 

it 
its 
it 

they 
their,  theirs 
them 

The  personal  pronoun  ending  in  self  or  selves  is 
to  be  used  for  emphasis  or  reflexively.  Examples  : 
/  myself  did  it.  I  blamed  myself. 


PRONOUNS  13 

The  personal  pronouns  use  no  apostrophe  in  the 
possessive  case. 

A  Relative  pronoun  is  one  that  connects.  The 
relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  what,  that,  as, 
and  the  compounds  whoever,  whosoever,  whatever, 
whatsoever,  whichever,  whichsoever. 

Singular  and  Plural 

NOMINATIVE:  who  which  what  that 

POSSESSIVE  :     whose  whose  whose 

OBJECTIVE  :     whom  which  what  that 

The  Interrogative  pronouns,  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions, are  who,  what,  and  which.  Who  is  declined 
like  the  relative  pronoun  who. 

Demonstrative  pronouns  point  out.  They  are 
this,  these,  that,  those.  These  pronouns  do  not 
change  their  forms  for  case. 

The  Indefinite  pronouns  are  each,  either,  neither, 
some,  any,  few,  all,  both,  one,  none. 

The  demonstrative  and  indefinite  pronouns  are 
often  called  Adjective  Pronouns. 

The  indefinite  singular  pronouns,  such  as  each, 
either,  one,  should  be  used  with  a  singular  verb  and 
a  singular  pronoun,  thus :  "  Each  thinks  that  he 
can  do  the  work." 

The  Antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  word  for 
which  the  pronoun  stands.  A  pronoun  must  agree 
with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  person,  and  number. 


14  GRAMMAR 

The  case  of  a  pronoun,  like  the  case  of  a  noun, 
is  determined  by  its  use  in  the  sentence. 


VERBS 
A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts. 

(Regular 
Irregular 
Defective 

Governing  ( Transitive 

Power         {  intransitive  (Complete 

( Incomplete 
f  Principal 
Rank\  Auxiliary 

T.  .       f  Active 
Voice  \  n     . 

Passive 


VERBS 


Properties 


Mode 


Tense 


Indicative 
Subjunctive 
Potential 
Imperative 

Present 

Past  (Imperfect,  Preterite) 

Future 

Present  Perfect  (Perfect) 

Past  Perfect  (Pluperfect) 

Future  Perfect 


Person 
Number 


A  Regular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  root 


VERBS  15 

(simplest  form)  of  the  verb.  These  verbs  are  said 
to  belong  to  the  new,  weak,  or  regtilar  conjuga- 
tion. Example :  row  (rowed).  An  Irregular  verb 
forms  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  usually 
by  a  change  in  the  vowel  of  the  root.  Such  verbs 
are  said  to  belong  to  the  old,  strong,  or  irregular 
conjugation. 

A  Defective  verb  is  one  that  lacks  some  of  its 
principal  parts.  Examples :  ought,  quoth,  may, 
can,  shall. 

A  Transitive  verb  is  one  that  is  usually  followed 
by   an   object;    that   is,   by  a   noun   or    pronoun 
signifying  that  which  is  Affected  by  the  action  of  / 
the  verb. 

An  Intransitive  verb  is  one  that  can  not  have  an 
object.  An  intransitive  verb  can  have  no  passive 
voice. 

Intransitive  verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes  — 
complete  and  incomplete.  A  Complete  intransitive 
verb  is  one  that  requires  nothing  to  complete  its 
meaning.  An  Incomplete  intransitive  verb  is  one 
of  such  verbs  as  be,  appear,  seem,  look,  become, 
which  require  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb 
to  complete  their  meaning. 

The  Principal  verb  is  the  part  of  the  verb  phrase 
which  expresses  the  action  or  state. 

The  Auxiliary  verb  is  one  of  the  words  have, 
has,  had,  do,  be,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must,  might, 


16  GRAMMAR 

and  the  like,  which  help  the  principal  verb  to  ex- 
press its  action  or  state. 

Can  and  .could  express  ability ;  may  and  might. 
possibility  and  permission ;  must,  necessity ;  do 
and  did,  emphasis ;  be  and  its  variations,  the  pas- 
sive and  the  progressive  forms;  shall  and  will, 
the  future  tense. 

Voice  is  that  property  of  transitive  verbs  which 
signifies  whether  the  subject  is  acting  or  is  acted 
upon.  If  the  subject  is  acting,  the  verb  is  said  to 
be  in  the  Active  voice.  If  the  subject  is  acted 
upon,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  voice. 
The  passive  voice  of  the  verb  is  formed  by  prefixing 
some  form  of  the  verb  be  to  the  past  participle  of 
the  principal  verb. 

Mode,  or  Mood,  is  the  manner  of  expressing  the 
action  of  the  verb. 

The  Indicative  mode  is  the  mode  of  simple 
declaration. 

The  Subjunctive  mode  is  the  mode  of  doubt- 
;  ful  or  conditional  assertion,  and  it  is  also  used 
to  indicate  a  wish  in  the  first  and  the  third 
persons. 

The  Potential  mode  is  the  collection  of  verb 
phrases  that  indicate  ability,  possibility  or  permis- 
sion, obligation,  or  necessity.  The  auxiliaries  used 
in  these  phrases  are  may,  can,  must,  might,  could, 
would,  and  should. 


VERBS  I/ 

The  Imperative  mode  expresses  command,  en- 
treaty, and  sometimes  a  simple  wish.  The  sub- 
ject of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  in  the 
second  person. 

Tense  is  the  property  of  verbs  which  indicates 
the  time  of  the  action  of  the  verb.  There  are  six 
tenses :  present,  past,  future,  perfect,  pluperfect, 
future  perfect. 

The  Future  tense  uses  the  auxiliaries  shall  and 
will. 

The  Perfect  tense  uses  the  auxiliary  have. 

The  Pluperfect  tense  uses  the  auxiliary  had. 

The  Future  Perfect  tense  uses  the  auxiliary  com- 
binations shall  have  and  will  have. 

When  these  tenses  are  used  in  the  passive  voice 
or  the  progressive  form,  some  form  of  the  verb  be 
is  added  to  these  auxiliaries. 

The  Progressive  form  of  the  verb  consists  of 
the  present  participle  used  with  some  form  of  be. 

The  Emphatic  form  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the 
present  and  past  tenses,  and  is  made  by  combin- 
ing do  in  the  present  tense  and  did  in  the  past 
tense  with  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb. 

The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present 
tense,  the  past  tense,  the  present  participle,  and    . 
the  past  participle.     The  past  tense  and  the  past  / 
participle  of  most  irregular  verbs  are  not  inter-  I 
changeable. 

K.  PRIM.  —  2 


1 8  GRAMMAR 

A  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  used  like  an 
adjective. 

An  Infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  having  usu- 
ally the  use  of  a  noun  and  sometimes  that  of  an 
adverb  or  an  adjective.  To  is  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  and  is  usually  expressed  with  it.  When 
an  infinitive  has  a  subject,  it  is  always  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

The  Gerund  is  a  form  of  the  verb  ending  in  ing 
and  used  like  a  noun.  (The  gerund  is  sometimes 
called  a  verbal  noun  and  sometimes  the  infinitive 
in  ing.) 

USE   OF   VERB    FORMS 

The  tenses  of  verbs  in  dependent  clauses  are 
usually  dependent  upon  the  tenses  of  the  verbs 
in  the  principal  clauses. 

/     Present  facts  and  unchangeable  truths  demand 
the  present  tense. 

The  person  and  number  of  a  verb  are  deter- 
mined by  the  subject. 

Two  singular  subjects  connected  by  and  demand 
a  plural  verb. 

A  compound  subject  expressing  but  a  single 
idea,  however,  sometimes  takes  a  verb  in  the  singu- 
lar. Example  :  The  end  and  aim  is  this. 

Two  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor 
demand  a  singular  verb. 


VERBS  19 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  differing  in 
person  or  number,  it  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject. 

When  a  sentence  begins  with  the  word  there  used 
as  an  expletive  (or  apparent  subject),  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  real  subject.  Example :  There  are  two  boys. 

Collective  nouns  sometimes  take  a  singular  and 
sometimes  a  plural  verb.  If  the  individuals  mak- 
ing the  collection  are  considered,  the  verb  is  plural. 
If  the  collection  is  thought  of  as  a  unit,  the  verb 
is  singular. 

USE   OF   SHALL   AND    WILL 

Shall  in  the  first  person  and  will  in  the  secondX 
and  third  persons  denote  mere  futurity. 

Will  in  the  first  person  and  shall  in  the  second    r 
and  third  denote  volition. 

Similar  statements  are  true  of  should  and  would. 

In  asking  questions  shall  must  always  be  used 
with  a  subject  in  the  first  person.  In  the  second 
and  third  persons  we  use  shall  and  will  accord- 
ing to  the  answers  that  we  expect.  When  we 
expect  the  answer  shall,  we  use  shall  in  asking  the 
question.  When  we  expect  the  answer  will,  we 
use  will  in  asking  the  question. 

The  proper  use  of  shall,  will,  should,  and  would 
in  indirect  discourse  may  be  determined  by  turning 
the  sentence  into  the  direct  discourse  and  choosing 
the  proper  word  according  to  the  rule. 


20  GRAMMAR 

With  all  three  persons,  would  is  used  to  express  a 
wish.  Also  would  is  used  without  regard  to  future 
time,  to  denote  that  an  action  is  customary ;  as,  "  He 
would  often  fish  for  days  in  succession." 

Should  is  used  with  all  three  persons  in  condi- 
tional clauses.  Also  it  is  sometimes  used  in  its  orig- 
inal sense  of  ought ;  as,  "  You  should  not  do  that." 

I  know  that,  in  point  of  fact,  you  will  always  enjoy  writing, 
and  I  shall  always  enjoy  reading  your  stories ;  indeed,  you 
shall  go  on  writing  them,  and  I  will  go  on  reading  them, 
even  though  you  should  not  use  "  would "  as  you  should,  or 
as  you  would  if  you  should  use  "  would  "  and  "  should  "  as 
Shakespeare  or  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold  would. 

—  From  "  A  Private  Letter,"  EDWARD  ROWLAND  SILL. 

The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  shows  its  changes  in 
form  to  express  mode,  voice,  tense,  person,  and 
number. 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB  ROW 

INDICATIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  row  We  row 

2.  Thou  rowest  You  (ye)  row 

3.  He  rows  (roweth)  They  row 

Passive  Voice 

1 .  I  am  rowed  We  are  rowed 

2.  Thou  art  rowed  You  are  rowed 

3.  He  is  rowed  They  are  rowed 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  ROW         21 


<  PAST  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

I.    I  rowed 

We  rowed 

2.   Thou  rowedst 

You  rowed 

3.    He  rowed 

They  rowed 

Passive 

Voice 

i.   I  was  rowed 

We  were  rowed 

2.   Thou  wast  rowed 

You  were  rowed 

3.    He  was  rowed 

They  were  rowed  \ 

FUTURE  TENSE.—  Active  Voice 

I.   I  shall  row 

We  shall  row 

2.   Thou  wilt  row 

You  will  row 

3.   He  will  row 

They  will  row 

Passive 

Voice 

i.   I  shall  be  rowed 

We  shall  be  rowed 

2.   Thou  wilt  be  rowed 

You  will  be  rowed 

3.   He  will  be  rowed 

They  will  be  rowed 

PERFECT  TENSE, 

—  Active  Voice 

i.   I  have  rowed 

We  have  rowed 

2.    Thou  hast  rowed 

You  have  rowed 

3.   He  has  rowed 

They  have  rowed 

Passive 

Voice      . 

I.    I  have  been  rowed 

We  have  been  rowed 

2.   Thou  hast  been  rowed 

You  have  been  rowed 

3.   He  has  been  rowed 

They  have  been  rowed 

PLUPERFECT  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

i.   I  had  rowed 

We  had  rowed 

2.   Thou  hadst  rowed 

You  had  rowed 

3.   He  had  rowed 

They  had  rowed 

Passive 

Voice 

i.    I  had  been  rowed 

We  had  been  rowed 

2.    Thou  hadst  been  rowed 

You  had  been  rowed 

3.   He  had  been  rowed 

They  had  been  rowed 

22  GRAMMAR 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

1.  I  shall  have  rowed  We  shall  have  rowed 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  rowed  You  will  have  rowed 

3.  He  will  have  rowed  They  will  have  rowed 

Passive  Voice 

1.  I  shall  have  been  rowed  We  shall  have  been  rowed 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  rowed  You  will  have  been  rowed 

3.  He  will  have  been  rowed  They  will  have  been  rowed 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE.  —Active  Voice 

Singular  Plural 

1.  If  I  row  If  we  row 

2.  If  thou  row  If  you  row 

3.  If  he  row  If  they  row 

Passive  Voice 

1.  If  I  be  rowed  If  we  be  rowed 

2.  If  thou  be  rowed  If  you  be  rowed 

3.  If  he  be  rowed  If  they  be  rowed 

PAST  TENSE.—  Active  Voice 

1.  If  I  rowed  If  we  rowed 

2.  If  thou  rowed  If  you  rowed 

3.  If  he  rowed  If  they  rowed 

Passive  Voice 

I.   If  I  were  rowed  If  we  were  rowed 

2    If  thou  wert  rowed  If  you  were  rowed 

3.  If  he  were  rowed  If  they  were  rowed 

PERFECT  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

1.  If  I  have  rowed  If  we  have  rowed 

2.  If  thou  have  rowed  If  you  have  rowed 

3.  If  he  have  rowed  If  they  have  rowed 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB  ROW         23 

Passive  Voice 

1.  If  I  have  been  rowed  If  we  have  been  rowed 

2.  If  thou  have  been  rowed  If  you  have  been  rowed 

3.  If  he  have  been  rowed  If  they  have  been  rowed 

PLUPERFECT  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

1 .  If  I  had  rowed  If  we  had  rowed 

2.  If  thou  had  rowed  If  you  had  rowed 

3.  If  he  had  rowed  If  they  had  rowed 

Passive  Voice 

1.  If  I  had  been  rowed  If  we  had  been  rowed 

2.  If  thou  had  been  rowed  If  you  had  been  rowed 

3.  If  he  had  been  rowed  If  they  had  been  rowed 

POTENTIAL  FORMS  WITH  MAY  AND  MIGHT 

PRESENT  TENSE.—  Active  Voice 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  may  row  We  may  row 

2.  Thou  mayst  row  You  may  row 

3.  He  may  row  They  may  row 

Passive  Voice 

1.  I  may  be  rowed  We  may  be  rowed 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  rowed  You  may  be  rowed 

3.  He  may  be  rowed  They  may  be  rowed 

PAST  TENSE.  —  Active  Voice 

1.  I  might  row  We  might  row 

2.  Thou  mightst  row  You  might  row 

3.  He  might  row  They  might  row 

Passive  Voice 

1.  I  might  be  rowed  We  might  be  rowed 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  rowed  You  might  be  rowed 

3.  He  might  be  rowed  They  might  be  rowed 


24  GRAMMAR 

PERFECT  TENSE. — Active  Voice 

1 .  I  may  have  rowed  We  may  have  rowed 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  rowed          You  may  have  rowed 

3.  He  may  have  rowed  They  may  have  rowed 

Passive  Voice 

1 .  I  may  have  been  rowed  We  may  have  been  rowed 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  rowed  You  may  have  been  rowed 

3.  He  may  have  been  rowed        They  may  have  been  rowed 

PLUPERFECT  TENSE. — Active  Voice 

1.  I  might  have  rowed  We  might  have  rowed 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  rowed        You  might  have  rowed 

3.  He  might  have  rowed  They  might  have  rowed 

Passive  Voice 

i .  I  might  have  been  rowed  We  might  have  been  rowed 
2.,  Thou  mightst  have  been  rowed  You  might  have  been  rowed 
3.  He  might  have  been  rowed  They  might  have  been  rowed 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE 

Active  Voice  Passive  Voice 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

Row  thou        Row  ye        Be  thou  rowed         Be  ye  rowed 
Do  thou  row  Do  ye  row   Do  thou  be  rowed   Do  ye  be  rowed 

INFINITIVES 

Active  Voice  Passive  Voice 

PRESENT  :  To  row  To  be  rowed 

PRESENT  PROGRESSIVE  :  To  be  rowing 
PERFECT  :  To  have  rowed  To  have  been  rowed 

PERFECT  PROGRESSIVE  :  To  have  been  rowing 


ADJECTIVES 


PARTICIPLES 


Active  Voice 
PRESENT:  Rowing 
PAST:  Rowed 
PERFECT  :  Having  rowed 


PERFECT  PROGRESSIVE  :  Having  been  rowing 


Passive  Voice 
Being  rowed 
Rowed 
Having  been  rowed 


CONJUGATION  OF   THE   VERB  BE 

By  omitting  the  past  participle,  rowed,  from  the 
passive  conjugation  of  row  the  various  forms  of 
the  verb  be  may  be  seen  in  different  modes  and 
tenses ;  the  past  participle  of  be  is  been. 


ADJECTIVES 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  that  modifies  a  noun  or 
pronoun. 

f  Descriptive 

r  Demonstrative 
Pronominal  j  Interrogative 
Classes  \  I  Indefinite 

ADJEmvEsf  «  {££- 

k  Articles,  —  #,  an,  the 

(  Positive  degree 

Comparison  \  Comparative  degree 
I  Superlative  degree 

A  Descriptive  adjective  is  one  that  names  some 
quality  of  an  object, 


26  GRAMMAR 

A  Pronominal  adjective  is  a  pronoun  used  adjec- 
tively.  There  are  three  kinds  of  pronominal  adjec- 
tives :  demonstrative,  interrogative,  and  indefinite. 

The  Demonstrative  adjectives  are  this,  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter,  same,  such,  yon,  yonder. 

The  Interrogative  adjectives  are  which  and  what. 
These  adjectives  are  also  used  relatively.  Example : 
I  know  what  book  you  wish. 

The  principal  Indefinite  adjectives  are  each,  every, 
either,  neither,  some,  any,  many,  few,  all,  none,  no, 
both,  much,  more,  most. 

The  Cardinal  Numerals  are  one,  two,  three,  four, 
five,  etc. 

The  Ordinal  Numerals  are  first,  second,  third, 
fourth,  fifth,  etc. 

COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES 

The  three  forms  which  adjectives  may  assume 
are  known  as  degrees  of  comparison,  and  they  are 
called,  respectively,  the  positive,  the  comparative, 
and  the  superlative. 

The  Positive  Degree  of  the  adjective  indicates 
the  simple  quality  of  the  object  without  reference 
to  any  other. 

The  Comparative  Degree  of  the  adjective  indi- 
cates that  two  objects  are  compared. 

The  Superlative  Degree  of  the  adjective  indi- 
cates that  three  or  more  objects  are  compared. 


ADJECTIVES  27 

Adjectives  compared  regularly  add  er  or  r  to  the 
positive  to  form  the  comparative  and  est  or  st  to 
the  positive  to  form  the  superlative.  Some  adjec- 
tives are  compared  by  prefixing  more  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  comparative,  and  most  to  the  positive 
to  form  the  superlative. 

A  few  adjectives  are  irregularly  compared  :  — 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

good,  well  better  best 

bad,  ill  worse  worst 

little  less,  lesser  least 

many,  much  more  most 

old  older,  elder  oldest,  eldest 

late  later,  latter  latest,  last 

fore  former  foremost,  first 

far  farther  farthest 

(forth)  further  furthest 

,    ^  \  outmost,  outermost 

(out)  outer,  utter 

[  utmost,  uttermost 

Some  adjectives  express  such  qualities  that  they 
do  not  admit  of  comparison.  Examples :  dead, 
universal,  three-cornered. 

USE   OF   ADJECTIVES 

It  is  easy  to  distinguish  between  adjectives  and 
adverbs  by  determining  what  they  modify.  If  a 
word  modifies  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  it  is  an  adjective. 

A  Predicate  Adjective  is  one  that  modifies  a  noun 
or  pronoun  by  the  help  of  a  verb. 


28 


GRAMMAR 


ADVERBS  —  Classes 


ADVERBS 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Adverbs  of  place  and  motion : 
here,  there,  up,  down 

Adverbs  of  manner : 

thus,  well,  truly,  squarely 

Adverbs  of  time  and  succession : 
then,  always,  next,  first 

Adverbs  of  measure  and  degree  : 
much,  little,  scarcely,  very 

Modal  adverbs : 

surely,  indeed,  not,  therefore 

Conjunctive  adverbs : 
where,  when,  while 

When  adverbs  are  compared,  they  are  compared 
like  similar  adjectives. 

Some  adverbs  do  not  admit  of  comparison. 

Two  negative  expressions,  such  as  not  hardly, 
not  scarcely,  not  but,  should  not  be  used  together 
to  denote  negation. 

PREPOSITIONS 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  connecting  a  following 
noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  a  modifying  phrase.  The  noun 


ADVERBS  —  CONJUNCTIONS  29 

or  pronoun  so  connected  is  called  the  object  of  the 
preposition,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Following  are  a  few  common  prepositions :  — 


at 

on 

above 

except 

after 

since 

about 

during 

against 

through 

within 

throughout 

but 

till 

without 

among 

by 

to 

across 

beside 

down 

under 

around 

below 

for 

with 

between 

near 

from 

into 

like 

until 

in 

of 

off 

over 

upon 

before 

behind 

CONJUNCTIONS 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word,  or  group  of  words,  used 
to  connect  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences. 


CONJUNCTIONS — 
Classes 


Coordinate 


Subordinate 


Conjunctions  of  place  and 
time :  before,  until,  when, 
where,  as  soon  as. 

Conjunctions  of  cause  and 
condition :  because,  if, 
though. 

Conjunctions  of  end  or  pur- 
pose :  that,  so  that,  lest. 

Conjunctions  of  comparison : 
as,  than. 


30  GRAMMAR 

A  Coordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  connects 
elements  of  equal  rank.  The  principal  coordinate 
conjunctions  are  and,  or,  nor,  but,  therefore,  also, 
moreover.  Paired  conjunctions,  like  either — or, 
neither — nor,  not  only  —  but  also,  both  —  and,  are 
called  Correlative  conjunctions. 

A  Subordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  connects 
elements  unequal  in  rank. 

The  subordinate  conjunctions  when,  where, 
wherein,  whence,  whither,  while,  until,  etc.,  which 
indicate  a  time  or  place  relation,  are  sometimes 
called  Conjunctive  or  Relative  Adverbs. 

USE   OF   CONJUNCTIONS 

Coordinate  conjunctions  should  connect  elements 
of  equal  rank  and  of  similar  construction. 

The  conjunctions  as  and  than  are  followed  by 
the  same  construction  that  precedes. 

In  a  negative  declarative  sentence  the  proper 
correlative  for  as  is  so.  Example :  "  He  is  not  so 
wise  as  his  brother." 

Like  should  never  be  used  as  a  conjunction. 

INTERJECTIONS 

An  Interjection  is  an  exclamation  expressive  of 
feeling ;  it  is  independent  of  the  other  parts  of  a 
sentence. 


SENTENCES  31 

SENTENCES,   CLAUSES,  AND  PHRASES 
SENTENCES 

According  to  their  meaning,  sentences  are  clas- 
sified grammatically  as  declarative,  interrogative, 
imperative,  and  exclamatory. 

I      A  Declarative  sentence  makes  an  assertion. 
An  Interrogative  sentence  asks  a  question. 
An  Imperative  sentence  expresses  a  command, 
entreaty,  or  wish. 

An  Exclamatory  sentence  makes  an  exclamation. 

According  to  their  construction,  sentences  are 
classified  as  simple,  complex,  and  compound. 

A  Simple  sentence  has  but  one  clause. 

A  Complex  sentence  has  one  principal  clause 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses. 

A  Compound  sentence  has  two  or  more  prin- 
cipal clauses ;  it  may  have  also  one  or  more  sub- 
ordinate clauses,  in  which  case  the  sentence  is 
both  compound  and  complex. 

The  Subject  of  a  sentence  names  that  about 
which  something  is  asserted. 

The  Predicate  of  a  sentence  asserts  something 
about  the  subject. 

The  simple  subject  (noun  or  pronoun)  with  all 
its  modifiers  makes  the  complete  subject.  The 
simple  predicate  (verb)  with  all  its  modifiers  and 
complements  makes  the  complete  predicate. 


32  GRAMMAR 

CLAUSES 

i       t 

A  Clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  a  sub- 
ject and  a  predicate  and  forming  a  part  of  a 
sentence. 

Clauses  are  classified  according  to  their  rank  as 
principal  and  subordinate. 

A  Principal,  or  Independent,  clause  is  one  that 
forms  an  assertion  by  itself. 

A  Subordinate,  or  Dependent,  clause  is  one  that 
is  used  like  a  single  part  of  speech ;  namely,  a 
noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Noun  clauses  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
verb,  the  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition,  in  appo- 
sition, or  as  a  predicate  noun.  Examples :  — 

Subject :  That  he  made  the  error  is  true. 

Object  of  verb  :  I  knew  that  he  made  the  error. 

Object  of  preposition :  He  traded  with  what  money  he  had, 

In  apposition :  The  fact,  that  he  made  the  error,  is  known. 

As  predicate  noun  :  He  is  what  he  seems. 

Adjective  and  adverbial  clauses  are  used  like 
simple  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Subordinate  clauses  are  usually  connected  with 
principal  clauses  by  relative  (conjunctive)  pronouns, 
conjunctive  adverbs,  and  subordinate  conjunctions. 

Direct  quotations  forming  a  part  of  a  sentence 
are  subordinate  clauses,  though  they  have  usually 
no  introductory  connectiveo 


CLAUSES,  PHRASES,  PUNCTUATION          33 

PHRASES 

A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words  used  like  a  single 
part  of  speech,  but  not  containing  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

According  to  their  use  in  the  sentence,  phrases 
may  serve  as  adjectives,  adverbs,  or  nouns. 

According  to  their  construction,  phrases  are  clas- 
sified as  prepositional,  participial,  and  infinitive. 

An  Infinitive  Phrase  consists  of  an  infinitive  with 
its  subject,  object,  and  modifiers. 

A  Participial  Phrase  consists  of  a  participle  with 
its  object  and  modifiers. 

A  Prepositional  Phrase  consists  of  a  preposition 
and  its  object. 

CAPITALS 

Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Names  of  the  Deity,  proper  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives derived  from  proper  nouns,  and  titles,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  O  should  be 
written  with  capitals. 

PUNCTUATION 

I.    Independent  elements  are  set  off  by  marks  of 
punctuation,  usually  commas  or  exclamation  points. 
K.  PRIM. — 3 


34  GRAMMAR 

2.  Explanatory  elements  that  do  not  restrict 
the  meaning  are  set  off  by  marks  of  punctuation, 
usually  commas. 

3.  Explanatory  elements  that  are  restrictive  are 
not  set  off  by  marks  of  punctuation. 

4.  A  semicolon  or  a  comma  may  be  used  to 
separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction.      If  that  conjunction  is 
but,  one  of  these  marks  must  be  used. 

5.  If  the  compound  sentence  has  no  conjunc- 
tion to  connect  its  independent  clauses,  the  semi- 
colon should  be  used  in  its  place. 

6.  If  any  one  of  the  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence   contains   commas,  the    members    them- 
selves should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

7.  A  series  of  elements  in  the  same  grammat- 
ical construction  is  to  be  separated  by  semicolons 
if  any  one  of  the  series  contains  commas.     Other- 
wise the  series  may  be  separated  by  commas. 

8.  Such  a  series  if  introduced  formally  is  usu- 
ally preceded  by  a  colon  or  by  a  comma  and  dash. 

9.  A  colon  is  used  to  precede  an  additional 
statement  used  for  explanation  or  illustration. 

10.  A  colon  is  used  to  precede  a  direct  quota- 
tfcn  introduced  formally.  A  quotation  introduced 
informally  is  preceded  by  a  comma. 

n.  Short  phrases  or  single  words  may  be  itali- 
cized instead  of  quoted. 


PUNCTUATION  35 

12.  Single  words  or  broken  phrases  when  quoted 
do  not  always  need  the  initial  capital  letter  or  the 
introductory  punctuation  mark. 

13.  Quotations  within  quotations  demand  single 
quotation  marks. 

14.  Marks  of   parenthesis  are  used  to  include 
matter   having   the   slightest   possible   connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     Any  mark  of  punc- 
tuation to  follow  the  word  preceding  the  paren- 
thesis is  usually  placed  only  after  the  last  mark  of 
parenthesis. 

15.  A  dash,  or  a  comma  and  dash,  may  be  used 
to  set  off  matter  having  a  slight  connection  with 
the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

1 6.  The  dash  is  also  used  to  show  omission  of 
letters  or  figures. 

17.  The  hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of 
compounds  and  to  connect  divided  syllables. 

1 8.  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  indicate  the  pos- 
sessive case  and  omitted  letters  in  contractions ; 
followed  by  s  the  apostrophe  indicates  the  plural 
of  letters,  figures,  signs,  and  words  regarded  as 
things  spoken  or  written. 

19.  Italics  —  indicated  in  writing  by  underlining 
—  are  used  for  emphasis,  foreign  words,  and  titles 
of  books. 


RULES,   DEFINITIONS,   AND   PRIN- 
CIPLES  OF   RHETORIC 

The  Forms  of  Composition  are  narration,  descrip- 
tion,  exposition,  and  argument. 

NARRATION 

The  Plot  of  a  story  or  drama  is  the  series  of 
incidents  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the  story. 

The  principal  requirements  of  a  good  narrative 
are  the  following  :  — 

1.  The  story  should  develop  one  or  more  of  the 

following :  plot,  situation,  character. 

2.  The  story  should  have  interest. 

(a)  It  should  begin  attractively  and  as  directly 

as  possible. 
(£)  It  must  move,  and  not  simply  "mark  time." 

(c)  It  may  be  made  effective  by  dramatic  situa- 

tions and  turning  points. 

(d)  It  may  use  description,  but  the  description 

must  be  closely  connected  with  the  story 
and  must  not  hinder  the  movement. 

(e)  It  should  discriminate  in  the  number  and 

the  importance  of  details. 
36    , 


FORMS   OF  COMPOSITION  37 

(/)  It  may  make  effective  use  of  the  elements 

of  suspense  and  suggestion. 
(<£•)  It   should    have   no    inconsistency   in   the 

speech  or  the  actions  of  the  characters. 
(^)  It  should  not  be  hindered  by  episodes. 
(*)  It  should  have  an  effective  ending. 

DESCRIPTION 

In  every  good  description  a  point  of  view  should 
be  established. 

The  description  should  be  governed  by  the  point 
of  view. 

The  general  outline  of  the  picture  should,  as  a 
rule,  be  given  first. 

The  number  of  details  should  be  so  few  and  so 
significant  as  to  make  a  vivid  picture. 

The  order  of  the  details  should  be  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  object  to  be  described. 

EXPOSITION 

Exposition  is  a  form  of  composition  designed  to 
explain. 

The  important  characteristic  of  exposition  is 
clearness. 

The  main  points  may  be  stated  in  various  ways 
in  order  to  make  them  clear. 

Exposition  makes  large  use  of  illustration. 


38  RHETORIC 

ARGUMENT 

Argument  is  a  form  of  composition  designed  to 
prove  the  truth  or  the  falsity  of  a  proposition. 

A  Brief  is  a  summary  of  an  argument  showing 
the  development  of  the  argument  by  a  series  of 
headings  and  sub-headings. 

The  first  step  in  the  argument  should  be  to 
define  the  terms  of  the  proposition  or  to  determine 
the  facts  in  the  case. 

State  reasons  to  establish  facts. 

The  conclusion  should  be  warranted  by  the 
premises. 

Illustrations  may  be  used  effectively,  but  not 
conclusively. 

Analogy  should  be  used  for  illustration,  not  as 
a  basis  for  conclusions. 

Arguments  should  usually  be  arranged  in  the 
order  of  their  strength,  the  strongest  last. 

LETTER  WRITING 

Every  business  or  social  letter  should  show  these 
divisions :  the  heading,  the  salutation,  the  body  of 
the  letter,  the  complimentary  close,  and  the  signa- 
ture. Business  letters  should  have  an  introductory 
address  before  the  salutation. 

The  Heading  consists  of  the  place  and  the  date. 


LETTER  WRITING  39 

The  Salutation  and  the  Complimentary  Close 
should  be  appropriate  to  the  person  addressed. 

Postal  cards  need  no  salutation  or  complimen- 
tary close,  but  the  date  should  never  be  omitted. 

All  business  notes  and  letters  should  be  as  con- 
cise and  direct  as  possible. 

Formal  Invitations  are  written  in  the  third  per- 
son and  have  no  heading,  salutation,  or  conclusion. 
Informal  Invitations  are  written  in  the  first  person. 
All  answers  to  invitations  should  be  written  in  the 
same  person  that  is  used  in  the  invitation. 


BUSINESS   LETTERS 

24  Oberlin  St., 

Worcester,  Mass., 

Aug.  15,  1904. 
The  Denholm-McKay  Co., 
Worcester,  Mass. 

Gentlemen :  Please  send  to  the  above  ad- 
dress ten  yards  of  muslin  like  the  inclosed  sample, 
for  which  I  inclose  check  for  two  dollars  and  fifty 
cents  ($2.50). 

Yours  truly, 

MARY  I.  BROWN, 
Address :  — 

Mrs.  John  L.  Brown. 


40  RHETORIC 

24  Oberlin  St., 

Worcester,  Mass., 

Aug.  15,  1904, 
American  Book  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Dear  Sirs :  — 

Inclosed  you  will  find  a  postal  order  for  one 
dollar  ($1.00),  for  which  please  send  me  one  copy 
of  each  of  the  following  books:  The  Ancient 
Mariner,  Burke's  Conciliation,  The  Milton  Lyrics, 
Julius  Ccesar,  Macaulay's  Second  Essay  on  the 
Earl  of  Chatham. 

Yours  truly, 

CHARLES  E.  STORY. 
\ 


POSTAL  CARD 


I  will   send   you  the   pictures  which 
you  require. 

H.  P.  THORNTON. 

July  4,  1904. 


LETTER  WRITING  41 

INFORMAL  INVITATION  AND  ANSWER 

2  June  Street, 

Roxbury,  Mass., 

Aug.  5,  1904. 
Dear  Luke :  — 

Charles  and  I  are  to  have  a  boating  party 
next  Thursday  evening  and  we  are  eager  to  have 
you  with  us.  We  shall  start  from  our  house  at 
half-past  seven,  and  we  hope  that  nothing  will 
prevent  your  joining  us  at  that  time. 
Very  sincerely, 

CARRIE  MAYNARD. 


25  Endicott  Street, 

Boston,  Mass., 

Aug.  6,  1904. 
Dear  Carrie :  — 

It  was  very  kind  in  you  to  think  of  me 
for  the  fun  on  Thursday,  and  you  may  be  sure 
that  I  shall  not  miss  such  an  opportunity.  I'll  be 
with  you  promptly  at  7.30.  With  many  thanks, 
I  am 

Most  sincerely, 

LUKE  P.  BRIGHAM. 


42  RHETORIC 

FORMAL  INVITATION  AND  ANSWERS 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles  E.  Browne  request  the 
pleasure  of  Miss  Thompson's  company  at  dinner, 
at  21  Woodland  St.,  on  February  the  twenty- 
third,  at  half-past  seven. 

Miss  Thompson  accepts  with  pleasure  the  invi- 
tation of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles  E.  Browne  for 
dinner  on  February  the  twenty-third. 

Miss  Thompson  regrets  that  a  previous  engage- 
ment prevents  her  acceptance  of  the  kind  invitation 
of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Charles  !£.  Browne  for  February  the 
twenty-third. 

EXCUSE  FOR  ABSENCE 

3  Decatur  Street, 
Worcester,  June  5,  1904. 
Dear  Miss  Carter :  — 

Will  you  kindly  excuse  Harry's  absence 
on  Thursday,  June  2. 

Very  sincerely, 

MARY  E.  SHATTUCK. 

THE  PARAGRAPH 

A  Paragraph  is  a  division  in  composition  treating 
only  one  part  of  the  subject.  A  paragraph  must 
conform  to  the  same  rules  that  should  govern  the 


PARAGRAPH  —  SENTENCE  43 

whole  composition ;  that  is,  it  must  show  unity, 
massing,  and  coherence. 

Unity  demands  that  all  the  thoughts  in  a  sen- 
tence, in  a  paragraph,  or  in  the  whole  theme  shall 
cluster  about  one  main  idea. 

Massing  demands  that  the  important  thoughts 
shall  be  placed  in  prominent  places. 

Coherence  demands  that  thoughts  shall  be  closely 
connected. 

The  length  of  paragraphs  is  not  to  be  regulated 
absolutely:  the  subject-matter  to  be  treated,  the 
appearance  of  the  page,  and  the  comfort  of  the 
reader  must  all  be  considered.  In  a  dialogue 
a  new  paragraph  is  begun  with  each  change  of 
speaker. 

THE  SENTENCE 

Rhetorically,  sentences  may  be  classified  as 
periodic,  loose,  and  balanced. 

A  Periodic  sentence  is  one  that  holds  the  thought 
in  suspense  until  the  end.  Example :  In  all  his 
long  life,  from  the  time  when,  as  a  twelve-year-old 
boy,  he  was  roaming  in  the  fields  and  fishing  the 
streams,  to  the  days  of  his  manhood,  when  he  was 
upholding  the  honor  of  his  state  in  the  Senate,  he 
showed  the  same  simple,  democratic  nature. 

A  Loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  there  is  no 
attempt  to  show  suspense;  the  different  parts 


44  RHETORIC 

may  come  in  where  natural  ease  of  expression 
suggests. 

A  Balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which  contrasting 
thoughts  are  stated  in  similar  forms.  Example : 
God  made  the  country  and  man  made  the  town. 

The  periodic  and  the  balanced  sentence  are  likely 
to  result  in  artificiality  of  expression  unless  used 
with  care.  The  loose  sentence  gives  ease  and 
naturalness,  but  these  desirable  qualities  may  easily 
change  to  slovenliness  of  expression  in  the  hands 
of  a  careless  writer. 

Sentences,  like  paragraphs,  should  show  unity, 
massing,  and  coherence. 

Unity  demands  that  the  sentence  shall  have  one 
main  idea.  The  unity  of  a  sentence  is  destroyed  by 
putting  together  ideas  that  should  be  separated,  by 
making  the  wrong  idea  subordinate,  or  by  making 
ideas  coordinate  that  are  not  of  equal  importance. 

Examples  of  lack  of  unity :  — 

1 .  The  words  are  very  simple  and  I  think  it  very  strange 
that  a  tinker  could  write  such  a  good  book. 

2.  We  went  up  the  main  road  about  half  a  mile,  when  we 
came  to  a  pasture. 

3.  In  the  hen  yard  were  two  beehives  and  it  was  there  that 
we  spent  much  time. 

Massing  in  the  sentence  demands  that  the  main 
thought  shall  be  placed  where  it  will  "  readily  catch 
the  eye." 


CHOICE  AND   USE   OF  WORDS  45 

Coherence  demands  that  the  parts  shall  be  so  con- 
nected that  the  thought  will  be  clear  and  compact. 

The  length  of  sentences  is  governed  by  the  effect 
to  be  produced.  Short  sentences  give  vigor,  em- 
phasis, and  rapidity.  Long  sentences  give  weight 
and  rhythm. 

A  well-constructed  sentence  keeps  the  same  sub- 
ject as  long  as  possible. 

All  modifying  elements  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  words  they  modify. 

A  Dangling  Element  —  one  that  modifies  nothing 
—  must  be  avoided.  Example:  Looking  into  the 
water,  a  fish  was  seen. 

A  "  Squinting  Construction "  is  one  that  is  so 
poorly  placed  in  the  sentence  as  to  modify  equally 
well  the  part  preceding  and  the  part  following. 
Example :  Will  you  say  to  Mr.  Brown,  when  he 
comes,  I  will  be  ready. 

Redundancy — a  weak  repetition  of  an  idea  — 
must  be  avoided. 

Verbosity  or  Prolixity  is  the  fault  in  sentence- 
making  caused  by  using  needless  words, 

CHOICE  AND  USE  OF  WORDS 

Good  usage  —  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and 
speakers  —  sanctions  only  words  that  are  in  repu- 
table, national,  and  present  usage. 


46  RHETORIC 

The  term  Barbarism  is  applied  to  unauthorized 
language.  Some  offenses  against  good  usage  are 
the  following  :  - — 

1.  Obsolete  words,  words  gone  out  of  use. 

2.  Provincialisms,  words  peculiar  to  some  locality. 

3.  Colloquialisms,  words  peculiar  to  familiar  con- 
versation. 

4.  Solecisms,  ungrammatical  expressions. 

5.  Archaisms,  expressions  which  would  be  obso- 
lete except  for  their  occasional  use  in  poetry. 

The  term  Impropriety  is  used  to  designate  repu- 
table words  misapplied. 

Slang  is  a  general  name  for  current,  vulgar,  un- 
authorized language.  It  may  take  the  form  of 
barbarism  or  impropriety. 

Use  the  fewest  and  simplest  words  that  the 
subject  will  bear. 

Specific  words  are  usually  more  forcible  than 
general  terms. 

Foreign  and  technical  terms  should  be  used  with 
care. 

Use  idioms  wherever  it  is  possible. 

Whatever  may  be  the  thing  one  wishes  to  say,  there  is  but 
one  word  for  expressing  it ;  only  one  verb  to  animate  it ;  only 
one  adjective  to  qualify  it.  It  is  essential  to  search  for  this 
word,  for  this  verb,  for  this  adjective,  until  they  are  discovered, 
and  to  be  satisfied  with  nothing  else. 

—  FLAUBERT  (Advice  to  Maupassant). 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  47 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

Figures  of  speech  are  used  to  make  language 
more  effective.  The  common  figures  are  meta- 
phor, simile,  allegory,  personification,  apostrophe, 
metonymy,  euphemism,  hyperbole,  antithesis,  irony, 
climax,  onomatopoeia,  and  alliteration. 

Metaphor  and  Simile  are  figures  based  on  resem- 
blance ;  metaphor  implies  the  comparison,  while 
simile  expresses  it,  usually  by  either  like  or  as. 

Metaphor :  — 

"Hearty  and  hale  was  he,  an  oak  that  is  covered  with 
snowflakes." 

Simile :  — 

"  Lightsome  as  a  locust  leaf, 
Sir  Laimfal  flashed  forth  in  his  unscarred  mail." 

"  The  gentlemen  choristers  have  evidently  been  chosen, 
like  old  Cremona  fiddles,  more  for  tone  than  looks." 

Allegory  is  a  prolonged  metaphor  used  to  teach 
some  abstract  truth  by  the  use  of  symbols.  Ex- 
amples:  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress ;  Spenser's 
Faerie  Qucene ;  Psalm  Ixxx.,  in  which  the  "vine" 
stands  for  the  people  of  Israel. 

Personification  attributes  life  to  inanimate  objects. 
When  the  object  is  directly  addressed,  the  figure  is 
called  Apostrophe. 


48  RHETORIC 

Personification :  — 

"  The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  a  roof 
'Neath  which  he  could  house  him,  winter  proof." 

Apostrophe :  — 

"  But,  O  Grief,  where  hast  thou  led  me  ! " 

Metonymy  is  the  substitution  of  one  name  for 
another  which  it  suggests.     Examples  :  — 

"  She  keeps  a  good  table." 

"The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword." 

Euphemism  is  a  softened  way  of  expressing  an 
unpleasant  thought. 

Direct :  He  is  a  liar. 

Euphemistic :  He  is  purposely  inaccurate  in  his  statements. 

Hyperbole  is  effective  exaggeration. 

"  her  eye  in  heaven 

Would  through  the  airy  region  stream  so  bright, 
That  birds  would  sing  and  think  it  were  not  night." 

Antithesis  is  a  contrast  of  words  or  thoughts. 
Examples :  — 

"  Better  be  first,  he  said,  in  a  little  Iberian  village 

Than  be  second  in  Rome." 
"  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread."   fu  ... 

Irony  is  hidden  satire. 

"  'Tis  pretty,  sure,  and  very  probable, 
That  eyes,  that  are  the  frail'st  and  softest  things, 
Should  be  called  tyrants,  butchers,  murderers." 


POETRY  49 

Climax  states  a  series  of  thoughts  in  the  order 
of  their  importance,  the  most  important  last. 
A  reversal  of  this  order  is  sometimes  used  for 
humorous  effect  and  is  called  Anti-climax. 

Example  of  Climax  :  — 

"  It  is  an  outrage  to  bind  a  Roman  citizen ;  to  scourge  him 
is  an  atrocious  crime  ;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  parricide ; 
but  to  crucify  him  —  what  shall  I  call  it  ?  " 

Onomatopoeia  emphasizes  the  meaning  by  adapt- 
ing the  sound  to  the  sense.  Example  from  Cata- 
ract of  Lodore :  — 

"And  sounding  and  bounding  and  rounding, 
And  bubbling  and  troubling  and  doubling, 
And  grumbling  and  rumbling  and  tumbling, 
And  clattering  and  battering  and  shattering." 

Alliteration  repeats  the  same  sound  in  successive 
words.  Examples :  — 

"  .Silently  out  of  the  room  there  glided  the  ^listening  .ravage, 
Bearing  the  xerpentV  skin  and  Deeming  himself  like  a  serpent, 
^Finding  his  jinuour  way  in  the  t/ark  to  the  depths  of  the 
forat." 

POETRY 

The  chief  object  of  poetry  is  to  give  pleasure. 
Poetry  is  usually  expressed  in  verse,  though  not 
all  verse  is  poetry,  and  much  of  poetic  beauty  is 
often  found  in  prose.  The  diction  of  poetry  is 

K.  PRIM. — 4 


SO  RHETORIC 

usually  more  condensed,  picturesque,  and  archaic 
than  that  of  prose. 

The  materials  of  poetry  are  taken  from  external 
nature,  from  imagination,  and  from  human  life. 

Blank  Verse  is  that  which  has  no  rhyme. 

KINDS  OF  POETRY 

Poetry  is  usually  classified  as  epic,  lyric,  and 
dramatic  poetry  ;  sometimes  a  fourth  class  is  added, 
—  didactic  poetry.  Epic  and  dramatic  poetry  are 
alike  in  that  the  essential  element  of  each  is  a 
story;  but  in  epic  poetry  the  author  tells  of  the 
acts  and  words  of  others,  while  in  dramatic  poetry 
the  characters  speak  and  act  for  themselves. 

EPIC  POETRY 

Epic  poetry  includes  five  varieties,  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  Great  Epic  must  have  a  noble  subject, 
serious   treatment,  a   hero,   events   largely  under 
superhuman  control,  and  a  consistent  plot.     The 
interest  lies  in  the  action.     Examples :  The  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey;  Paradise  Lost. 

2.  The  Metrical  Romance  differs  from  the  great 
epic  in  its  theme,  which  is  less  serious ;  its  meter, 
which  is  lighter;  and  its  control  of  events,  which 
is  mainly  human ;  the  love  element  is  more  promi- 
nent in  this  form  of  the  epic.     Examples :  Scott's 
Marmion  and  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 


POETRY  51 

3.  The  Tale  is  a  simple  form  of  narrative  poetry 
telling  a  complete   story.     Examples :    Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales ;  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden. 

4.  The  Ballad  is  a  direct,  rapid,  and  condensed 
story,   having  peculiarities  of   phrase  and   poetic 
accent.    The  common  ballad  meter  is  iambic  tetram- 
eter (pp.  55,  56)  alternating  with  iambic  trimeter, 
in  stanzas  of  four  lines  each.     Examples :  Chevy 
Chase  ;  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner. 

5.  Pastorals  and  Idylls  have  a  great  deal  of  de- 
scription, often  of  simple  country  scenes,  mingled 
with  the  narrative.     Examples :    Goldsmith's  De- 
serted Village ;  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King. 

DRAMATIC  POETRY 

Dramatic  poetry  tells  a  story  by  means  of  char- 
acters speaking  and  acting  in  such  a  way  as  to 
develop  a  plot.  The  drama  is  divided  into  acts, 
often  five,  the  fifth  act  showing  the  results  of  the 
plot  which  has  been  developing. 

The  classes  of  dramatic  poetry  are  tragedy  and 
comedy. 

Tragedy  deals  with  the  grave  situations  and 
problems  of  life  and  engenders  in  the  spectator 
noble  emotions. 

Comedy  deals  with  the  pleasanter  and  more 
trivial  side  of  life  and  chooses  its  subjects  from 
everyday  follies,  accidents,  or  humors, 


52  RHETORIC 

An  Opera  is  a  tragedy  or  a  comedy  in  which  the 
characters  sing  their  parts. 

The  following  are  special  forms  of  comedy :  — 

1.  The  Farce  presents  ridiculous  and  exagger- 
ated situations  and  characters.     It  is  usually  short. 

2.  The  Melodrama  is  a  form  of  comedy  employ- 
ing music  to  some  extent,  and  using  situations  that 
are  very  romantic  and  sensational. 

3.  The  Mask  is  an  old  form  of  comedy  intro- 
ducing much  of  the  spectacular,  some  music,  rural 
scenes,  and  supernatural  characters. 

LYRIC  POETRY 

Lyric  poetry  expresses  the  deepest  emotions  or 
sentiment  of  the  poet.  The  lyric,  as  the  word 
suggests,  was  originally  designed  to  be  sung  to 
the  music  of  the  lyre. 

Lyric  poetry  includes  five  classes,  as  follows :  — 

1.  Song  may  be  either  sacred  or  secular. 

2.  The  Ode  is  the  loftiest  form  of  lyric,  and  ex- 
presses great  range  and  depth  of  feeling.     This 
range  of  emotion   often  varies  the  meter.      Ex- 
amples :  Tennyson's  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington ;  Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode. 

3.  The  Elegy  laments  the  fleeting  condition  of 
human  affairs.     Examples :  Gray's  Elegy  Written 
in  a  Country  Churchyard ;  Milton's  Lycidas ;  Ten- 
nyson's In  Memoriam. 


POETRY  53 

4.  The   Sonnet  is   a   short   poem   of    fourteen 
iambic  pentameter  lines,  and  had  originally  a  pre- 
scribed arrangement  of  rhyming  lines.     The  great 
English  sonnet  writers  are  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
Wordsworth,  and  Mrs.  Browning. 

What  is  a  sonnet  ?  T  is  the  pearly  shell  a 

That  murmurs  of  the  far-off  murmuring  sea ;  b 

A  precious  jewel  carved  most  curiously ;  b 

It  is  a  little  picture  painted  well.  a 

What  is  a  sonnet  ?  'T  is  the  tear  that  fell  a 

From  a  great  poet's  hidden  ecstasy  ;  b 

A  two-edged  sword,  a  star,  a  song  —  ah  me  !  b 

Sometimes  a  heavy-tolling  funeral  bell.  a 

This  was  the  flame  that  shook  with  Dante's  breath ;  a 

The  solemn  organ  whereon  Milton  played,  b 

And  the  clear  glass  where  Shakespeare's  shadow  falls :  c 

A  sea  this  is  —  beware  who  ventureth  !  a 

For  like  a  fiord  the  narrow  floor  is  laid  b 

Mid-ocean  deep  to  the  sheer  mountain  walls.  c 

—  R.  W.  GILDER. 

5.  Many  lyrics  have  none  of  the  special  aims 
already  mentioned.     These  may  be  called  Simple 
lyrics.     Example  :  Burns's  To  a  Daisy. 

DIDACTIC  POETRY 

Didactic  verse  is  not  the  highest  type  of  poetry. 
Its  aim  is  primarily  to  instruct.  Example:  Pope's 
Essay  on  Man. 


54  RHETORIC 

Poetry  that  teaches  a  moral  truth  is  not  neces- 
sarily to  be  classed  as  didactic  verse. 

One  form  of  didactic  poetry  is  satirical  in  its 
tone,  thereby  adding  sharpness  to  the  truth  of 
the  intended  teaching.  Example :  Lowell's  Biglow 
Papers. 

METER 

Verse  is  composition  arranged  in  regularly  recur- 
ring accents  and  pauses. 

The  unit  of  measure  in  verse  is  the  Foot.  Every 
foot  in  poetry  (except  the  spondee,  the  pyrrhic  foot, 
and  the  tribrach)  has  one  accented  syllable  and 
one  or  more  unaccented  syllables. 

Every  line  of  verse  has  usually  at  least  two 
pauses.  One  comes  in  the  body  of  the  line  and 
is  called  a  Caesura,  or  a  caesural  pause.  The  other 
comes  at  the  end  of  the  line  and  is  called  the  final 
pause.  Both  these  pauses  must  be  observed  in 
reading  verse. 

Reading  verse  to  show  its  meter  is  called  Scan- 
sion. 

Accented  syllables  may  be  marked  by  a  macron 
(_)  or  by  the  acute  accent  (  >  ).  Unaccented  sylla- 
bles may  be  marked  by  a  breve  (^). 

POETIC   LINES 

Monometer  =  line  of  one  foot. 
Dimeter        =  line  of  two  feet. 


POETRY  5  5 

Trimeter       =  line  of  three  feet. 
Tetrameter  =  line  of  four  feet. 
Pentameter  =  line  of  five  feet. 
Hexameter   =  line  of  six  feet. 
Heptameter  =  line  of  seven  feet. 
Octameter     =  line  of  eight  feet. 

POETIC   FEET 

A  foot  of  two  syllables  with  the  accent  on  the 
first  is  a  Trochee,  or  a  Trochaic  Foot  (_  w). 

A  foot  of  two  syllables  with  the  accent  on  the 
second  is  an  Iambus,  or  an  Iambic  Foot  (w  _). 

A  foot  of  two  syllables,  both  accented,  is  a 
Spondee,  or  a  Spondaic  Foot  ( ). 

A  foot  of  two  syllables,  neither  accented,  is  a 
Pyrrhic  Foot  (w  w). 

A  foot  of  three  syllables  with  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable  is  a  Dactyl,  or  a  Dactylic  Foot  (_  w  w). 

A  foot  of  three  syllables  with  the  accent  on  the 
last  syllable  is  an  Anapest,  or  an  Anapestic  Foot 
(w  -  _). 

A  foot  of  three  syllables,  no  one  accented,  is  a 
Tribrach. 

A  pyrrhic  foot  and  a  tribrach  are  made  up  of 
unimportant  words  and  unaccented  syllables. 

Some  lines  show  two  or  more  kinds  of  feet. 
Such  lines  are  said  to  be  mixed. 

A  line  is  named  from  the  prevailing  foot* 


56  RHETORIC 

w  _      =  iambus. 
_  w      =  trochee. 

=  spondee. 

w  w      =  pyrrhic  foot 
_  w  w  =  dactyl. 
w  w  —  =  anapestic  foot, 
w  w  w  =  tribrach. 

^y    __         vy          —     vy    -^      v^      _— 

I  wanjdered  lone|ly  as  |  a  cloud 

(Iambic  tetrameter.) 

Heard  the  |  lapping  |  of  the  |  water 
(Trochaic  tetrameter.) 

This  is  the  |  forest  pri|meval ;   the  |  murmuring  | 

pines  and  the  |  hemlocks 

(Dactylic  hexameter.) 

Oh,  young  |  Lochinvar  |  is  come  out  |  of  the  West 
(Anapestic  tetrameter.) 

One  more  unfortunate 

(Dactylic  dimeter.) 

This  was  |  the  no|blest  Ro|man  of  |  them  all 
(Iambic  pentameter.) 


DONETS—  RHETORICAL  AND  GRAMMATICAL       57 


"Don'ts,"  —  Rhetorical  and  Grammatical 


Dorit  use : 


bound 

most 

real 

funny 

verbal 

aggravating 

mutual 

quite 

some 

good 

except 

bring 

can 

transpire 

leave 

effect 

love 

propose 

mad 

like 

something 

illusion 

statue 

laid 

set 


for  determined 

for  nearly 

for  very 

for  odd 

for  oral 

for  provoking 

for  common 

as  an  adjective 

for  somewhat 

for  well 

for  accept 

for  carry  or  take 

for  may 

for  happen 

for  let 

for  affect 

for  like 

for  purpose  or  intend 

for  vexed  or  angry 

as  a  conjunction 

as  an  adverb 

for  allusion 

for  statute 

for  the  past  tense  of 

for  the  past  tense  of 


58  GRAMMAR  AND   RHETORIC 

Don't  use:  — 

health}  for  healthful 

team  for  carriage  or  wagon 

calculate  for  intend 

learn  for  teach 

allude  for  mention 

not  with  scarcely,  hardly,  or  but  to  indi- 

cate negation 

different  than,  scarcely  than,  or  hardly  than 
a  noun  or  pronoun  as  object  of  the  verb  be 
the  nominative  case  for  the  object  of  a  preposition 
ain't  for  is  not  or  am  not  or  are  not 

will  with  /  or  we  in  asking  questions 

quantity  for  number 

awfully  for  z/^;j 

myself  except  as  an  ap positive  or  a  reflex- 

ive pronoun 

that  as  an  adverb  instead  of  so 

a  little  ways     for  a  short  distance 
worse  for  more 

witness  for  see 

fix  for  arrange  or  repair 

party  for  person 

t he se?cc\di  those  with  £/«rf  and  ,r0/T 
a  plural  pronoun  or  a  plural  verb  with  such  words 

as  each,  every,  either,  neither,  some  one,  somebody. 

any  one,  nobody, 
between  for  among 


HELPS   IN  WRITING   A  THEME  59 

between  to  refer  to  one  object 

had  with  ought 

woman  with  widow 

got  with  have  to  indicate  possession 

HELPS  IN  WRITING  A  THEME 

The  choice  of  a  subject  should  be  determined 
by  your  knowledge  and  your  interest.  You  must 
choose  a  definite  subject  and  the  title  must  be  ap- 
propriate. After  the  subject  is  chosen,  make  as 
many  notes  of  available  thoughts  as  possible.  Ar- 
range these  notes  in  an  outline.  Then,  with  no 
particular  care  as  to  details,  write  freely  all  that 
you  have  to  say.  This  fluent  writing  will  help  to 
keep  the  essay  free  from  stiffness.  When  this 
first  rough  draft  has  been  made,  the  refining  proc- 
ess should  begin.  Then  much  thought  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  insure  that  the  theme  has  an 
attractive  beginning  and  a  forcible  ending;  that 
there  is  proportion  between  the  parts  of  the  essay ; 
that  matters  of  importance  are  elaborated;  that 
unimportant  details  are  omitted;  that  there  is  a 
good  division  and  arrangement  of  paragraphs; 
that  there  is  a  nice  construction  of  sentences ; 
and  that  the  details  of  spelling,  capitalization, 
and  punctuation  are  correct 


INDEX 


Abstract  nouns,  6. 

Active  voice,  16. 

Adjective  pronouns,  13. 

Adjectives,  25-27. 

Adverbs,  28. 

Agreement,  of  nouns,  9;  of  pro- 
nouns, 13;  of  verbs,  18,  19. 

Allegory,  47. 

Alliteration,  49. 

Analogy,  use  of,  in  argument,  38. 

Anapest,  Anapestic,  55,  56. 

Antecedent,  13. 

Anti-climax,  49. 

Antithesis,  48. 

Apostrophe,  figure  of  speech,  47, 
48;  punctuation  mark,  35,  9, 
10,  13. 

Apposition,  7,  8,  9. 

Archaisms,  46. 

Argument,  38. 

Articles,  25. 

As  and  so,  use  of,  30. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  15—17. 

Balanced  sentence,  44. 

Ballad,  51. 

Barbarism,  46. 

£>e,  conjugation  of,  25, 

Blank  verse,  50. 

Brief,  38. 

Business  letters,  39,  40. 


Caesura,  54. 

Can,  use  of,  16. 

Capitals,  use  of,  33. 

Cardinal  numerals,  26. 

Case,  7-9. 

Clauses,  32. 

Climax,  49. 

Coherence,  43,  45. 

Collective  noun,  6,  19. 

Colloquialisms,  46. 

Colon,  use  of,  34. 

Comedy,  51,  52. 

Comma,  use  of,  33,  34. 

Common  noun,  6. 

Comparative  degree,  26. 

Comparison,  of  adjectives,  26, 27; 

of  adverbs,  28. 
Complete  predicate,  31. 
Complete  subject,  31. 
Complete  verb,  15. 
Complex  sentence,  31. 
Complimentary  close,  of  a  letter 

39- 

Composition,  forms  of,  36. 
Compound  nouns,  plural  of,  IQC 
Compound  sentence,  31. 
Conjugation,  20-25. 
Conjunctions,  29,  30. 
Conjunctive  adverbs,  28,  30. 
Coordinate  conjunctions,  30. 
Correlative  conjunctions,  30. 


62 


INDEX 


Dactyl,  Dactylic,  55,  56. 
Dangling  element,  45. 
Dash,  use  of,  35. 
Declarative  sentence,  31. 
Declension,   11-13. 
Defective  verb,  15. 
Demonstrative  adjectives,  26. 
Demonstrative  pronouns,  13. 
Dependent  clause,  32. 
Description,  37. 
Descriptive  adjective,  25. 
Dialogue,  paragraphing  of,  43. 
Didactic  poetry,  53,  54. 
Dimeter,  54,  56. 
Don'ts,  57-59. 
Dramatic  poetry,  51,  52. 

Elegy,  52. 

Emphatic  form  of  verb,  17. 
Epic  poetry,  50,  51. 
Euphemism,  48. 
Exclamatory  sentence,  31. 
Excuse  for  absence,  42. 
Expletive,  19. 
Exposition,  37. 

Farce,  52. 

Feminine  gender,  7. 
Figures  of  speech,  47-49. 
Foot  (poetic),  54-56. 
Future  perfect  tense,  17. 
Future  tense,  17. 

Gender,  7. 

Genitive  case,  8. 

Gerund,  18;  possessive  case  with, 

9- 
Grammar,  5. 


Heading,  of  a  letter,  38. 
Helps  in  writing  a  theme,  59. 
Heptameter,  55. 
Hexameter,  55,  56. 
Hyperbole,  48. 
Hyphen,  use  of,  35. 

Iambus,  Iambic,  55,  56. 
Idiom,  5. 

Imperative  mode,  17. 
Imperative  sentence,  31. 
Impropriety,  46. 
Incomplete  verb,  15. 
Indefinite  adjectives,  26. 
Indefinite  pronouns,  13. 
Independent  clause,  32. 
Indicative  mode,  16. 
Infinitive,  1 8. 
Infinitive  in  ing,  18. 
Infinitive  phrase,  33. 
Inflection,  5. 
Interjections,  30. 
Interrogative  adjectives,  26. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  13. 
Interrogative  sentence,  31. 
Intransitive  verb,  15. 
Invitations,  39,  41,  42. 
Irregular  verb,  15. 
Irony,  48. 
Italics,  use  of,  35,  34. 

Letter  writing,  38-42. 
Loose  sentence,  43,  44. 
Lyric  poetry,  52,  53. 

Masculine  gender,  7. 
Mask,  52. 
Massing,  43,  44. 


May,  use  of,  16. 
Measure,  nouns  showing,  6. 
Melodrama,  52. 
Metaphor,  47. 
Meter,  54-56. 
Metonymy,  48. 
Metrical  romance,  50. 
Mixed  lines  (of  poetry),  55. 
Modal  adverbs,  28. 
Mode,  1 6,  17. 
Monometer,  54. 
Mood,  1 6. 

Narration,  36,  37. 
Negative  expressions,  use  of,  28. 
Neuter  gender,  7. 
New  conjugation,  15. 
Nominative  case,  7. 
Noun  clauses,  use  of,  32. 
Nouns,  6-io;   agreement  of,  9. 
Number,  7;   of  verb,  18,  19. 

Object,  case  of,  8. 
Object,  indirect,  8. 
Object  of  a  preposition,  29. 
Objective  case,  8. 
Obsolete  words,  46. 
Octameter,  55. 
Ode,  52. 

Old  conjugation,  15. 
Onomatopoeia,  49. 
Opera,  52. 
Order  of  words,  5. 
Ordinal  numerals,  26. 

Paragraph,  42,  43. 
Parenthesis,  35. 
Participial  phrase,  33. 
Participle,  18. 


Parts  of  speech,  5. 

Passive  voice,  16. 

Past  tense,  17. 

Pentameter,  55,  56. 

Perfect  tense,  17. 

Periodic  sentence,  43,  44. 

Person,  7. 

Personal  pronouns,  11-13. 

Personification,  47,  48. 

Phrases,  33. 

Plot,  36. 

Pluperfect,  17. 

Plural  form  of  nouns,  10. 

Plural  number,  7. 

Poetic  feet,  54-56. 

Poetic  lines,  54,  55. 

Poetry,  49-56;   kinds  of,  50-54; 

meter,  etc.,  54-56. 
Positive  degree,  26. 
Possessive  case,  8,  9. 
Possessive  forms  of  nouns,  8,  9. 
Possessive  forms  of  pronouns,  1 2, 

13- 

Postal  card,  39,  40. 
Potential  mode,  16. 
Predicate,  31. 
Predicate  adjective,  27. 
Predicate  noun,  9,  7,  8. 
Prepositional  phrase,  33. 
Prepositions,  28,  29. 
Present  tense,  17,  18. 
Principal  clause,  32. 
Principal  parts  of  a  verb,  17. 
Principal  verb,  15. 
Progressive  form,  17. 
Prolixity,  45. 

Pronominal  adjectives,  26. 
Pronouns,  1 1-14 ;  agreement,  13. 


INDEX 


Proper  nouns,  6. 
Provincialisms,  46. 
Punctuation,  33-35. 
Pyrrhic  foot,  55. 

Quotation  marks,  use  of,  35. 

Redundancy,  45. 

Reflexive  use  of  pronouns,  12. 

Regular  verb,  15. 

Relative  adverbs,  30. 

Relative  pronouns,  13. 

Rhetoric,  36. 

Row,  conjugation  of,  20-25. 

Salutation,  of  a  letter,  39. 

Scansion,  54. 

Semicolon,  use  of,  34. 

Sentences,  classified  grammati- 
cally, 31;  classified  by  struc- 
ture, 31;  in  rhetoric,  43-45. 

Shall  and  will,  use  of,  19,  20. 

Should,  use  of,  19,  20. 

Sign  of  the  infinitive,  1 8. 

Simile,  47. 

Simple  predicate,  31. 

Simple  sentence,  31. 

Simple  subject,  31. 

Singular  number,  7. 

Slang,  46. 

So  and  as,  use  of,  30. 

Solecisms,  46. 

Song,  52. 

Sonnet,  53. 

Spondee,  Spondaic,  55. 


Squinting  construction,  45. 
Strong  conjugation,  15. 
Subject,  31 ;  case  of,  7,  8. 
Subjunctive  mode,  16. 
Subordinate  clause,  32. 
Subordinate  conjunction,  30,  29. 
Superlative  degree,  26. 
Syntax,  5. 

Tale  (poetry),  51. 

Tenses,    17,    18;     in   dependent 

clauses,  18. 
Tetrameter,  55,  56. 
Theme  writing,  59. 
Tragedy,  51,  52. 
Transitive  verb,  15. 
Tribrach,  55. 
Trimeter,  55. 
Trochee,  Trochaic,  55,  56. 

Unity,  43,  44. 

Verbal  noun,  18. 

Verbosity,  45. 

Verbs,  14-25;    use  of,   18,    19; 

number  of,  18,  19. 
Verse,  54. 
Vocative,  8. 
Voice,  1 6. 

Weak  conjugation,  15. 

Will,  use  of,  19,  20. 

Would,  use  of,  19,  20. 
Words,  choice  and  use  of,  45,  46; 
faulty  uses  of,  57-59. 


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